Relationship between India and the USA

Relationship between India and the USA Abstract This piece of work tries to study the relations of one superpower and another emerging power in international order. The relations of India-US have passed through a roller -coaster character since 1950s. The study is about the Indo-US relations during post Cold-War period. It tries to present in- depth study of the relation between two states, with historical background, major events of the period, US involvement in South Asia/India, its stand on India-Pakistan disputes. It observes about the transition from ‘estranged democracies’ to a ‘strategic partnership’ of the relations. US interests in the region were for many years interpreted as philanthropic rather than commercial or strategic, and the US was closed ally with Pakistan. The study is trying to find out How the neglected country for almost 50 years got top priority and finally turned to be natural ally. The relations have passed through different stage from ‘neither friend nor enemy’, ‘distanced democracies ’, ‘engaged democracies’ and finally as ‘natural allies’ with nuclear partnership. This achievement and transformation is not happened overnight. To achieve these, both countries have passed through different states overtime. The thesis tries to find out some reason behind this quick development in the relations. The transformation happened during post Cold -War period. Behind these transformations some reason such as Indian practice of democratization, open market policy, huge development on economy and IT sector played vital role. Likewise, US goal in the region was fulfilled while making good relations with India. After analysing some major events and immediate reaction, the thesis tries to make an argument that, with other reasons side by side, the nuclear test of 1998 by India was the central theme that helped for the transformations of the relations.   Chapter 1 Introduction and literature review Topic introduction and Purpose of the study After the end of the Cold War, the United States is leading in the International Order, and it is experienced that- this time is American time, its hegemony and policy for liberal democracy, human rights or in any colour or form. So its relations with any other part of the world is itself interesting and important. On the other hand, India is the largest democracy in the world and emerging power in the International order. It is economically and strategically threat to the US, it is tiger in Asia in term of population, economy and nuclear capacity. The relation between the superpower and emerging power is obviously important to the students of International Relations/politics or common people as well. So it is hoped that this research makes some interesting and important line of arguments. â€Å"As the tiger economies of South-east Asia roared away in the 1970s and 1980s, Indias biggest achievements remained its ability to feed its own people, and its adherence against the odds to democracy. Unshackled by the economic liberalisation of the early 1990s, India is already poised to overtake Japan as the worlds third largest economy. The nuclear status of India has been formally acknowledged by the US And, when the UN is finally reformed, its likely to land a permanent seat on the Security Council† (BBC Online, 2009.) For over forty years, the United States has contended with the problem of formatting a coherent policy toward South Asia- a region that contains approximately one-fifth of the world’s population. During this time, US policy has surrounded between interventions and withdrawal.  Detailed analysis of how Washington determines its South Asian policy, especially with regard to the regions two major states: India and Pakistan. The nations of South Asia contain a fifth of the human race. They include one state (India) that is certainly the world’s largest democracy and one other (Pakistan) that has been an intermittent ally of the US since 1953. For over thirty-five years Washington’s policy has shifted uneasily from neglect of the region to intense involvement in its economic, political, and military affairs, seeing in the former certain ideological and moral values and in the latter certain strategic and military advantages. This research tries to fill a gap in understanding of the reasons for American involvement in and policy toward South Asia especially India. The literature on US foreign policy is dominated by relations with the Soviet Union and Western Europe. American relations with Africa, Southeast Asia, Latin America, and South Asia are relatively neglected and episodic in nature. This absence of interest is especially marked in the case of South Asia. Yet, American decisions have profoundly affected the lives of most South Asians, the societies of regional states, and their external policies. It has often been noted that this influence and the relationship is excessively one-sided: American decisions affect South Asians far more than South Asian decisions can ever affect Americans. The purpose of this study is to examine the sources and patters of American responses towards events in India over a period of time, through an examination of some case study. Giving some brief introduction and history of Indo-US security relation after 2nd World War, it talks in detail about the relation during Post Cold War period. After the end of the Cold War, every country around the world effected, but South Asian countries effected more than others. The US has no rival in world order, but India and Pakistan, two countries from the South Asia emerged as new nuclear power. India could not be the state as neglected before. Post Cold- War period saw dramatic changes in US-India relation. Research Focus/Research question The main thrust of this thesis is to present the Indo-US relations during Post Cold War period, to study main events of the period and to explore the reasons behind the transformation in relations. The thesis is focused on the periphery of Post Cold War leading to 9/11. In the short span of time in 1990s how the transformation was possible, how the neglected country for almost 50 years got top priority in American foreign policy, it tries to answer these questions. The thesis tries to make an argument that the nuclear test of 1998 was the central theme that helped for the transformation of the relation. The Indo-US convergence was abruptly interrupted by India’s May 1998 nuclear tests. President Clinton’s initial reaction was simultaneously emotional: ‘To think that you have to manifest your greatness by behaviour that recalls the very worst events of the 20th century on the edge of the 21st century when everybody else is trying to leave the nuclear age behind, is just wrong.’ Because of the fact that both India and Pakistan had been de facto nuclear weapon states, US concerned about the possibility of nuclear war in South Asia, but it was obviously a challenge in Western hegemony as well. Although the US imposed suspension of most military-military contacts, the nuclear tests started a high-level engagements between the US and India. Overtime, the Clinton Administration adapted itself to the reality that India’s great-power aspirations included becoming a full-fledged nuclear weapons state. India’s 1998 nuclear explosive test were a blessing in disguise for long-term Indo-US relations. Once the tests exploded the illusion, Washington and New Delhi could get on with the important task of relating to one another on a more equal footing. Methodology The study is based on academic writings such as books, journal and online resources. While using such material a great care has been taken in term of their credibility. The books studied for the research are written by academics mostly of Indian background in origin. Mostly they are educated in American Universities and working there in US Universities. Their academic background and research area is about American foreign policy, Asian studies, Asians security. Likewise the online resources have been used with great care such as produced by the academics and trustworthy organizations like Asia Foundations, governmental bodies and well -known research centres. Though writers are educated and being engaged in US academia, care have been taken while developing arguments from their writing, being India origin, emotional behave might affect on their writing about American or Indian perspective. The thesis also contains three major events which were supposed to play determinative role for the transformations of the relations. Likewise it also collects immediate reaction after the test. For reactions the samples have been collected in three groups. Structure of the thesis The thesis is composed of six chapters. Chapter one is the general introduction explaining the topic and subject matter, rationale, and methodology. This chapter also includes the literature review. The second chapter traces the history of Indo-US relations. It talks about the US engagement in Asia and India. It simply presents the history of the relation explaining some major events of the period. The third chapter is about the post Cold -War scenarios. It begins with how the US started tilting to India not Pakistan. The change in American policy to South Asia and India begin at this point of time. This chapter explains three major events of the period as case study: Kashmir Issue 1999, nuclear test 1998 and Clinton visit 2002. After this, in Chapter Four to know the immediate reaction after the test, it collects some thoughts expressed in news Medias and thoughts by think tanks especially in the US. How the think-tank and the governments reacted to the test and talked about the bilateral relations.   After analysing three major events and reactions of the governments, think tanks and views expressed on newspaper, Chapter Five, the main part of the thesis makes an argument that it was the nuclear test 1998, which helped to transform the relation. This chapter once again makes a revision of the relation since 1950s. Finally, the thesis contains the conclusion and bibliography. Literature Review: As mentioned above, literature on American foreign policy is easily accessible and available everywhere but regarding the US relations to the South Asian region; book and journals are not available enough as compared to other regions. The literature on US foreign policy is dominated by relations with the Soviet Union and Western Europe. For example, Ambrose S E. (1993) exclusively presents the history of American foreign policy since 1938. Ambrose gives detail survey of American Foreign Policy from the period America was secure in the world-neither of the great totalitarian political forces of the century, Fascism or Communism. The author presents the overview of the evolution of American foreign Policy focusing on major events like World War II, the Cuban missile crisis, Vietnam War, and the SALT treaties. It also talks about the individual Presidents and their changed attitudes to the different regions. Ambrose begins with the starting years of American Foreign Policy and its strength overtime up to Bush Policy and US engagements in Gulf war. Ambrose presents a chronological history of American Foreign Policy, but this book hardly discusses the development in South Asian region. The author is quite on US engagement in South Asia/India or US involvement in Indian/Pakistani War, Kargil issue As compared to Ambrose, Spanier J (1983) talks about the US and third world (author’s term) developments. Spanier presents an account of American foreign policy from the closing days of World War II to the beginning of the second Regan administration. The author presents interpretation of the roles of the Unites States on the world stage since it became a nuclear superpower. It also talks about the theoretical frameworks of American foreign policy like the American approach to foreign policy, the state system, the American national style, the contrast between systematic and national behaviour. Spainer clearly tries to explore the reason behind World War, its significance and detailed survey of impact of nuclear weapons on the pattern of American-Soviet relations. The author explains in detail about the role of 3rd world during the Cold War to conflict with-and-in-the Third World. Bertsch K. Gary et.al. (1999) collects twelve essays by US educated academics with background study in South Asian studies. Most of the authors are with Indian background, educated and engaged in US intuitions. The write-up reflects their long experiences with their work either academic or institution like US based South Asia Program, Institutes for Defence Studies. The author addresses the broad range of non-proliferation and foreign policy issues that affect Indo-American relations. It not only describes missile control and space cooperation, chemical and biological weapons, and the use of sanctions versus incentives, the individual authors with their expertise knowledge provide practical recommendations for how a stronger and more meaningful dialogue can be established between the policy makers of the world’s two largest democracies. Authors present about the history of Indo-US relations in different perspective like strategic, economic, political, technical aspects but its main focus is to talk about broad insight into India’s relations with the rest of the world in the shadow of India’s 1998 nuclear tests. Likewise Gangulyscobell (2006) present a series of perspectives about US-Indian strategic cooperation. The authors make an effort for the current status and future instructions of the relation. The identify the strategic context for and logic behind Indias emerging security cooperation with the US, the strategic context for and logic behind growing US security cooperation with India, growing bilateral cooperation in the US-led Global War on Terrorism. Likewise, it raises an important issue of the US assessment of Indias role in the anti-terror struggle, Indian assessment of the US worldwide anti-terror effort, Chinese view of the growing security ties between Washington and New Delhi. Likewise it identifies some military-to-military ties between the United States and India, one from the perspective of Washington, and the other from a New Delhi perspective. S. Ganguly et.al. (2006) traces the origins, development and the current state of Indo-US strategic cooperation. The authors access the strategic cooperation of the worlds two largest democracies. They entirely talk about the strategic relation of the two countries. The book provides an assessment of Indo-US relations with a particular focus on the evolution of contemporary bilateral relations, focuses on the current state of military-to-military cooperation. The authors highlight the development of Indo-US defence ties over the last few decades and examine its underlying causes. Likewise they addressees key areas of future strategic cooperation including high technology trade, participation in multilateral peacekeeping operations. S. Ganguly’ (1990) identifies the key issues of how Washington determines its South Asian policy, especially with regard to the region’s two major states: India and Pakistan. Using case studies the author bases his study on US policy in four major South Asian crises: the 1962 India-China War, the India-Pakistan conflicts of 1965 and 1971, and the massive draught of 1966-1967. Ganguly’s research not only talks about the American foreign policy during different presidents in office and major events but also it talks about the theoretical aspect of American foreign policy. It describes analytical perspective of US foreign policy, South Asia and US foreign policy, history of Indo-US relations and Indo-China War, 1965 War, The 1965-67 Crisis, the 1971 Indo-Pakistani war. The author provides the detailed explanation of the major events of the history between two states and mostly incidents are based on American perspective. As mentioned earlier since the region itself did not get priority, so the discussion about the region in world affairs was limited. Only after late 1990s and especially after the nuclear test, the literature on American policy to Asia and India seems growing. One of such discussion is J. Singh (1998). It provides both historical and contemporary analytical insights on a variety of subjects that impose upon a nuclear India. Singh checks out the nuclear reality as it exists today, at the national and international level. He begins with why nuclear weapons are required and what are they all about. It further examines the rationale for the possession of nuclear weapons, detailed history of the Indian nuclear policy formulation between 1964-1998, presents history to trace the origin of nuclear weapons. It also demonstrates about the paths of proliferation and non-proliferation over the last five decades. The author also looks at the increasing proliferation concerns in the Indian neighbourhood, lists out the major proliferation challenges that have emerged after the Cold War. Likewise, it further focuses specially on ballistic missiles and their implications for international security. Likewise it also presents a detailed study of both China and Pakistan’s nuclear weapons and missile programme, examines the traditional Indian position on the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, impact of the nuclear test ban on the post-Cold War environment. It gives enough information about the nuclear weapons, their introduction, how they work and why they are required. It also presents the history of nuclear weapons, telling about the nuclear have countries when and how they conducted it. Jain, Rashmi (Ed.) 2006) presents the record of the transition of Indo-US relations from ‘estranged democracies’ to a ‘strategic partnership’ in the 21st century. It is the inclusive and current study of the political, economic/trade, military/defence and nuclear proportions of Indo-US relations from 1947 to 2006. Jain discusses the overall trends in relations between India and the United States during the Cold War and after. It deals with the implications of the American alliance with Pakistan, the extension of limited arms assistance to India following the India-China war of 1962 and support to the Tashkent and Simla agreements, Nixons tilt towards Pakistan during the Indo-Pak war of 1971, India’s nuclear test of 1947. The study contains a selection of 692 basic documents from official sources, including Congressional hearings, and provides the full texts or extracts from various agreements, joint communiquà ©s and statements and interviews by Government dignitaries. It is the collection of official documents related between the relations of two countries for about fifty years. It works as primary source for the researcher. Beside these books, Journal and other reports have been used while conducting the research. Journals like Foreign affairs, International Affairs, Strategic Affairs, and online edition of The Economist and news sites of BBC, CNN, The New York Times and Indian newspapers such as Hindu, the Times of India has been used. Likewise US congress report, governmental publications and the reports published by the Ministry of Indian External Affairs have been used. Chapter 2 Historical Background ‘South Asia and US Foreign Policy-US meets India’ This chapter briefs about the American Foreign Policy and US involvement in South Asia/India. It is an account of US-Indo relations after 1950s to late 1980s. It is not chronological history of the relation, but it includes major events and trends of the time. South Asia comprises a subsystem of powers with two major nations; India and Pakistan that are actually within South Asia and there others, China, the US and the USSR, that are extra-regional players in the region. South Asia also contains other states with minimal military and economical power; Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan. By virtue of their global status, the US and the USSR have been involved in South Asia until 1990s. South Asian Countries are often introduced by political instability, a relative diffusion of powers and slow economic development. These characteristics and weakness prompted the two superpowers to fill the apparent power vacuum and to change it in order to strengthen their respective global and regional policies (Ganguly S. 1999.) South Asia has been usually been regarded as only marginally important to the United States. In the major American security decisions regarding the stability of the international system, maintenance of nuclear balance or the problem of war and peace, South Asia was not considered a determining factor. Some reasons can be traced behind less priority of US to South Asia   First, it was not vital strategically; it did not offer any major resources essential to American industry. Second, the low level of economic and political interaction could not generate a positive image of South Asia in the American mind. In American perceptions, the area remained a preserve of British interests. Thus, US interests in the region were for many years interpreted as philanthropic rather than commercial or strategic (R.Arthur, 2006.) The central dilemma of US policy in South Asia since 1947 has been to deal with the competing claims of the two principal states of this region, India and Pakistan. In a sense, the constant dilemma of Americas South Asia Policy is a result of the regional contest between these two states.Of these two Sub continental states, if India was often a unimportant factor in US perception of the global strategic equation, Pakistan was an insignificant factor unless military aligned with the US. The initial US involvement in South Asia was barely influenced by the regional developments.  What did shape the US role was the shrinking British Empire and the rapid decline of the KMT regime in China. Succeeding US military links to South Asia (especially Pakistan), a subsidiary of its concern in relation to the Soviet Union, accidentally emphasized the level of hostility between India and Pakistan. US involvement not only annoyed India but also brought the Soviet Union and later China into the Subcontinent and made the region an arena of Cold war politics (Ganguly S, 1990.) In many ways, US involvement in India started during World War II, before this both officials and unofficial contacts with India were minimal. While the US maintained a few consular officers in India to look after commercial interests, it relied largely on British Foreign Office communications for information on the Indian political situation. The US really became involved in South Asia after its entry into World War II. British India served at that time as a spring –board for allied military operations against the Japanese in China and Southeast Asia. India’s relations with the Unites States have been described variously as ‘estranged democracies’ and distance powers by Americans. Indian have tended to describe it as ‘distanced democracies’, ‘engaged democracies’ and finally as ‘natural allies’. Another common refrain often articulated from India, describes the United States as the oldest and most powerful democracy and itself as the largest. The expectation from both sides appears to have been that ‘democracy’ will somehow transcend national interests and security imperatives and shape the relationship (B.Dipankar, 2006.) Relations between India and the US have varied widely over the last sixty-five years and adopted a roller-coaster character with many ups and downs and high and lows. In recent years India –US relations has transformed into what both sides claim to be a strategic partnership. Even as both countries move towards that desirable goal, it is useful to recall that divergences in perceptions and policies have varied widely over the years. At the end of the Second World War the Unites States emerged as the undisputed leader of the free world. Its lead in almost every area of consequence remains unchallenged for decades. All its possible peers were largely destroyed by the war and indeed needed Washington’s help to revive themselves. The United States did not just dominate the emerging world order, but had the opportunity to shape it by laying out its figures and establishing the international institutions that would determine its future. Within a few years of the War’s end, the Soviet Union and the Communist bloc emerged as the only group that could conceivably challenge this order, but only in a limited military sense. For India, the immediate concerns were different. It was to emerge from colonialism and external domination as an independent entity. It had first to fully assert its independence, in which it only got success partially as the nation itself was split into India and Pakistan addressing the region to internal conflict for decades. India’s identity and nationalism had to be developed an additional based on its own values and heritage and its territories needed to be consolidated. In addition to these concerns, a modern state had to be created almost from the beginning with all its associated institutions. (C. Raja Mohan 2003) To achieve these immediate goals, India needed a peaceful external environment, uncomplicated by the rivalries of the global power struggle. New Delhi needed to craft a policy that would provide it a meaningful and autonomous role in a future world, in keeping with its own size potential and aspiration. In accordance with these needs it choose a policy of ‘non-alignment’. The term itself was much misunderstood in the world, and particularly in the US. India, perhaps justifiably, never fully explained its position, leading many in the west to ask, ‘non-aligned against what; good and evil?’(R.Bahukutumbi, 1996.) What Nehru opined was a policy that would enable India to take independent positions on international issues without being tied down by alliances and ideological constraints. The central theme was not to get drawn in to military entanglements with major powers. He also hoped this would open up the possibility for India to adopt a position of some leadership of the emerging world. Many practical difficulties emerged, which hindered the implementations of this policy over the years. Over time, other countries also decided to remain ‘non-aligned’. On global issues, non-alignment often meant aligning against the west. Overall this policy prohibited the possibility of a military relationship with any country or grouping. This policy, and differences in world view, became a major barrier to an Indo-US military relationship throughout the Cold War (Ganguly S, 1990.) Indo-US diplomatic relations go back to the presidency of George Washington when Benjamin Joy was appointed to the position of US Consul in Calcutta, the then Indian Capital in 1792. Nothing of note happened until April 1941. When Girija Shakar Bajpai was appointed the first Agent General of India in Washington DC and Thomas Wilson shifted as US Commissioner from Calcutta to New Delhi. At that time President Roosevelt understood that a successful pursuit of the war against the Axis powers required India’s willing support and cooperation. Roosevelt’s support for Indian independence and concern about continuing British rule had left a favourable impression on Indians (Chari PR 1999.) Churchill’s refusal to contemplate a serious change in British imperial policy compelled the Indian National Congress to launch the Quit India movement in 1942. The Congress leaders believed that only an India that was promised freedom after the war could voluntarily join the war against fascism. Instead, the British responded by locking up most senior Congress political leaders. In spite of this, India’s participation in the Second World War was remarkable by any standards. Over two and a half million soldiers, each a volunteer, fought with Allied armies in many of the major threats of the global conflict. This contribution was particularly salient in the Burma front, without which the outcome would have been considerably less certain. In addition to the roughly half-million soldiers from India and the British Commonwealth in this theatre, the Allied forces were joined by troops representing the Nationalist Chinese, many Africans and, by the war’s end, some 250,000 US soldiers (Sigh 2005.) This enormous US troop contribution was easily its largest military-to-military relationship in South Asia. US forces provided the bulk of logistics support, flew substantial numbers of air sorties across uncharted routes in unstable aircraft, and ensured that the Kuomintang forces remained in the war against Japan in China. In addition, there was also the enormous Brooklyn air conditioning plant near Kolkata, the largest in Asia at the time that stored and supplied food to all Allied forces in the East (Banerjee, D 2000.) It might have been expected that this state relations would continue after Indian independence. Instead, the Cold war intervened. India was partitioned and a separate state, Pakistan came into existence in 1947. During the Cold War, the pressure of strategic imperatives often widened the disjuncture between the hope and the reality resulting in hurtful Indo-US relations. The US support to Pakistan on the Jammu and Kashmir dispute in the United Nations in 1948-49, and initiation of military support to Pakistan in 1954, shed a binding shadow on the relationship. The United States wanted to join as many states as possible in its war against communism, often in a formal strategic relationship. India viewed the logic of American alliances as directly breaking its own interests. India was convinced that American military support had encouraged Pakistan to wage war against it in 1965. This happened again during Indo-Pak war in 1971, when the US gave warnings to India and sent the USS Enterprise of its 7th Fleet into the Bay of Bengal. The United States perceived India’s policy of non-alignment as self-righteous and considered its neutrality far from neutral, citing examples of its silence over the Soviet invasion of Hungary and Czechosloskavia in 1968 (Dasgupta 2002.) In mid 1961 India agreed to buy the MiG-21 aircraft from the Soviet Union. This was offered on such munificent terms that neither Great Britain, nor France nor the US could come up with a comparable offer even if they wanted to match it. Thus, began a long and enduring Indo-Soviet arms relationship (Ganguly S, 1990.) The very strong Indian reaction to the evolving Pakistan-US military alliance was perhaps not anticipated in Washington. In any case, by now India’s image in the US had plunged and New Delhi‘s concerns were not a factor in US decision making. Indo-US relations remained frozen in a sate of suspended hostility until 1962. The Chinese aggression on India in Oct-Nov 1962 led to a remarkable turn around in Indo-US relations. The attack from Chinese side surprised and shocked the Indian leaders. A total of two Indian infantry divisions, or less than ten percent of the Indian combat force, faced a thoroughly prepared PLA. The Indian forces were totally unprepared, badly deployed, under-equipped and even without proper clothes. The defeat was total in terms of India’s political standing and its foreign policy. What is notable was the dramatic shift in Indian policy and the liberal military and political support that India received from the US and the West. None of India’s non-aligned partners provided help and few showed any sympathy. Moscow actually temporarily halted the MiG program, siding instead with its socialist friend.  In contrast, the US came through with substantial help. A considerably larger arms package of US $ 373 million was apparently worked out by November 1963 in Washington by Ambassador Chester Bowles and was to have been signed by President Kennedy on 26th of November, 1963. Kennedy said; We should defend India, and therefore Relationship between India and the USA Relationship between India and the USA Abstract This piece of work tries to study the relations of one superpower and another emerging power in international order. The relations of India-US have passed through a roller -coaster character since 1950s. The study is about the Indo-US relations during post Cold-War period. It tries to present in- depth study of the relation between two states, with historical background, major events of the period, US involvement in South Asia/India, its stand on India-Pakistan disputes. It observes about the transition from ‘estranged democracies’ to a ‘strategic partnership’ of the relations. US interests in the region were for many years interpreted as philanthropic rather than commercial or strategic, and the US was closed ally with Pakistan. The study is trying to find out How the neglected country for almost 50 years got top priority and finally turned to be natural ally. The relations have passed through different stage from ‘neither friend nor enemy’, ‘distanced democracies ’, ‘engaged democracies’ and finally as ‘natural allies’ with nuclear partnership. This achievement and transformation is not happened overnight. To achieve these, both countries have passed through different states overtime. The thesis tries to find out some reason behind this quick development in the relations. The transformation happened during post Cold -War period. Behind these transformations some reason such as Indian practice of democratization, open market policy, huge development on economy and IT sector played vital role. Likewise, US goal in the region was fulfilled while making good relations with India. After analysing some major events and immediate reaction, the thesis tries to make an argument that, with other reasons side by side, the nuclear test of 1998 by India was the central theme that helped for the transformations of the relations.   Chapter 1 Introduction and literature review Topic introduction and Purpose of the study After the end of the Cold War, the United States is leading in the International Order, and it is experienced that- this time is American time, its hegemony and policy for liberal democracy, human rights or in any colour or form. So its relations with any other part of the world is itself interesting and important. On the other hand, India is the largest democracy in the world and emerging power in the International order. It is economically and strategically threat to the US, it is tiger in Asia in term of population, economy and nuclear capacity. The relation between the superpower and emerging power is obviously important to the students of International Relations/politics or common people as well. So it is hoped that this research makes some interesting and important line of arguments. â€Å"As the tiger economies of South-east Asia roared away in the 1970s and 1980s, Indias biggest achievements remained its ability to feed its own people, and its adherence against the odds to democracy. Unshackled by the economic liberalisation of the early 1990s, India is already poised to overtake Japan as the worlds third largest economy. The nuclear status of India has been formally acknowledged by the US And, when the UN is finally reformed, its likely to land a permanent seat on the Security Council† (BBC Online, 2009.) For over forty years, the United States has contended with the problem of formatting a coherent policy toward South Asia- a region that contains approximately one-fifth of the world’s population. During this time, US policy has surrounded between interventions and withdrawal.  Detailed analysis of how Washington determines its South Asian policy, especially with regard to the regions two major states: India and Pakistan. The nations of South Asia contain a fifth of the human race. They include one state (India) that is certainly the world’s largest democracy and one other (Pakistan) that has been an intermittent ally of the US since 1953. For over thirty-five years Washington’s policy has shifted uneasily from neglect of the region to intense involvement in its economic, political, and military affairs, seeing in the former certain ideological and moral values and in the latter certain strategic and military advantages. This research tries to fill a gap in understanding of the reasons for American involvement in and policy toward South Asia especially India. The literature on US foreign policy is dominated by relations with the Soviet Union and Western Europe. American relations with Africa, Southeast Asia, Latin America, and South Asia are relatively neglected and episodic in nature. This absence of interest is especially marked in the case of South Asia. Yet, American decisions have profoundly affected the lives of most South Asians, the societies of regional states, and their external policies. It has often been noted that this influence and the relationship is excessively one-sided: American decisions affect South Asians far more than South Asian decisions can ever affect Americans. The purpose of this study is to examine the sources and patters of American responses towards events in India over a period of time, through an examination of some case study. Giving some brief introduction and history of Indo-US security relation after 2nd World War, it talks in detail about the relation during Post Cold War period. After the end of the Cold War, every country around the world effected, but South Asian countries effected more than others. The US has no rival in world order, but India and Pakistan, two countries from the South Asia emerged as new nuclear power. India could not be the state as neglected before. Post Cold- War period saw dramatic changes in US-India relation. Research Focus/Research question The main thrust of this thesis is to present the Indo-US relations during Post Cold War period, to study main events of the period and to explore the reasons behind the transformation in relations. The thesis is focused on the periphery of Post Cold War leading to 9/11. In the short span of time in 1990s how the transformation was possible, how the neglected country for almost 50 years got top priority in American foreign policy, it tries to answer these questions. The thesis tries to make an argument that the nuclear test of 1998 was the central theme that helped for the transformation of the relation. The Indo-US convergence was abruptly interrupted by India’s May 1998 nuclear tests. President Clinton’s initial reaction was simultaneously emotional: ‘To think that you have to manifest your greatness by behaviour that recalls the very worst events of the 20th century on the edge of the 21st century when everybody else is trying to leave the nuclear age behind, is just wrong.’ Because of the fact that both India and Pakistan had been de facto nuclear weapon states, US concerned about the possibility of nuclear war in South Asia, but it was obviously a challenge in Western hegemony as well. Although the US imposed suspension of most military-military contacts, the nuclear tests started a high-level engagements between the US and India. Overtime, the Clinton Administration adapted itself to the reality that India’s great-power aspirations included becoming a full-fledged nuclear weapons state. India’s 1998 nuclear explosive test were a blessing in disguise for long-term Indo-US relations. Once the tests exploded the illusion, Washington and New Delhi could get on with the important task of relating to one another on a more equal footing. Methodology The study is based on academic writings such as books, journal and online resources. While using such material a great care has been taken in term of their credibility. The books studied for the research are written by academics mostly of Indian background in origin. Mostly they are educated in American Universities and working there in US Universities. Their academic background and research area is about American foreign policy, Asian studies, Asians security. Likewise the online resources have been used with great care such as produced by the academics and trustworthy organizations like Asia Foundations, governmental bodies and well -known research centres. Though writers are educated and being engaged in US academia, care have been taken while developing arguments from their writing, being India origin, emotional behave might affect on their writing about American or Indian perspective. The thesis also contains three major events which were supposed to play determinative role for the transformations of the relations. Likewise it also collects immediate reaction after the test. For reactions the samples have been collected in three groups. Structure of the thesis The thesis is composed of six chapters. Chapter one is the general introduction explaining the topic and subject matter, rationale, and methodology. This chapter also includes the literature review. The second chapter traces the history of Indo-US relations. It talks about the US engagement in Asia and India. It simply presents the history of the relation explaining some major events of the period. The third chapter is about the post Cold -War scenarios. It begins with how the US started tilting to India not Pakistan. The change in American policy to South Asia and India begin at this point of time. This chapter explains three major events of the period as case study: Kashmir Issue 1999, nuclear test 1998 and Clinton visit 2002. After this, in Chapter Four to know the immediate reaction after the test, it collects some thoughts expressed in news Medias and thoughts by think tanks especially in the US. How the think-tank and the governments reacted to the test and talked about the bilateral relations.   After analysing three major events and reactions of the governments, think tanks and views expressed on newspaper, Chapter Five, the main part of the thesis makes an argument that it was the nuclear test 1998, which helped to transform the relation. This chapter once again makes a revision of the relation since 1950s. Finally, the thesis contains the conclusion and bibliography. Literature Review: As mentioned above, literature on American foreign policy is easily accessible and available everywhere but regarding the US relations to the South Asian region; book and journals are not available enough as compared to other regions. The literature on US foreign policy is dominated by relations with the Soviet Union and Western Europe. For example, Ambrose S E. (1993) exclusively presents the history of American foreign policy since 1938. Ambrose gives detail survey of American Foreign Policy from the period America was secure in the world-neither of the great totalitarian political forces of the century, Fascism or Communism. The author presents the overview of the evolution of American foreign Policy focusing on major events like World War II, the Cuban missile crisis, Vietnam War, and the SALT treaties. It also talks about the individual Presidents and their changed attitudes to the different regions. Ambrose begins with the starting years of American Foreign Policy and its strength overtime up to Bush Policy and US engagements in Gulf war. Ambrose presents a chronological history of American Foreign Policy, but this book hardly discusses the development in South Asian region. The author is quite on US engagement in South Asia/India or US involvement in Indian/Pakistani War, Kargil issue As compared to Ambrose, Spanier J (1983) talks about the US and third world (author’s term) developments. Spanier presents an account of American foreign policy from the closing days of World War II to the beginning of the second Regan administration. The author presents interpretation of the roles of the Unites States on the world stage since it became a nuclear superpower. It also talks about the theoretical frameworks of American foreign policy like the American approach to foreign policy, the state system, the American national style, the contrast between systematic and national behaviour. Spainer clearly tries to explore the reason behind World War, its significance and detailed survey of impact of nuclear weapons on the pattern of American-Soviet relations. The author explains in detail about the role of 3rd world during the Cold War to conflict with-and-in-the Third World. Bertsch K. Gary et.al. (1999) collects twelve essays by US educated academics with background study in South Asian studies. Most of the authors are with Indian background, educated and engaged in US intuitions. The write-up reflects their long experiences with their work either academic or institution like US based South Asia Program, Institutes for Defence Studies. The author addresses the broad range of non-proliferation and foreign policy issues that affect Indo-American relations. It not only describes missile control and space cooperation, chemical and biological weapons, and the use of sanctions versus incentives, the individual authors with their expertise knowledge provide practical recommendations for how a stronger and more meaningful dialogue can be established between the policy makers of the world’s two largest democracies. Authors present about the history of Indo-US relations in different perspective like strategic, economic, political, technical aspects but its main focus is to talk about broad insight into India’s relations with the rest of the world in the shadow of India’s 1998 nuclear tests. Likewise Gangulyscobell (2006) present a series of perspectives about US-Indian strategic cooperation. The authors make an effort for the current status and future instructions of the relation. The identify the strategic context for and logic behind Indias emerging security cooperation with the US, the strategic context for and logic behind growing US security cooperation with India, growing bilateral cooperation in the US-led Global War on Terrorism. Likewise, it raises an important issue of the US assessment of Indias role in the anti-terror struggle, Indian assessment of the US worldwide anti-terror effort, Chinese view of the growing security ties between Washington and New Delhi. Likewise it identifies some military-to-military ties between the United States and India, one from the perspective of Washington, and the other from a New Delhi perspective. S. Ganguly et.al. (2006) traces the origins, development and the current state of Indo-US strategic cooperation. The authors access the strategic cooperation of the worlds two largest democracies. They entirely talk about the strategic relation of the two countries. The book provides an assessment of Indo-US relations with a particular focus on the evolution of contemporary bilateral relations, focuses on the current state of military-to-military cooperation. The authors highlight the development of Indo-US defence ties over the last few decades and examine its underlying causes. Likewise they addressees key areas of future strategic cooperation including high technology trade, participation in multilateral peacekeeping operations. S. Ganguly’ (1990) identifies the key issues of how Washington determines its South Asian policy, especially with regard to the region’s two major states: India and Pakistan. Using case studies the author bases his study on US policy in four major South Asian crises: the 1962 India-China War, the India-Pakistan conflicts of 1965 and 1971, and the massive draught of 1966-1967. Ganguly’s research not only talks about the American foreign policy during different presidents in office and major events but also it talks about the theoretical aspect of American foreign policy. It describes analytical perspective of US foreign policy, South Asia and US foreign policy, history of Indo-US relations and Indo-China War, 1965 War, The 1965-67 Crisis, the 1971 Indo-Pakistani war. The author provides the detailed explanation of the major events of the history between two states and mostly incidents are based on American perspective. As mentioned earlier since the region itself did not get priority, so the discussion about the region in world affairs was limited. Only after late 1990s and especially after the nuclear test, the literature on American policy to Asia and India seems growing. One of such discussion is J. Singh (1998). It provides both historical and contemporary analytical insights on a variety of subjects that impose upon a nuclear India. Singh checks out the nuclear reality as it exists today, at the national and international level. He begins with why nuclear weapons are required and what are they all about. It further examines the rationale for the possession of nuclear weapons, detailed history of the Indian nuclear policy formulation between 1964-1998, presents history to trace the origin of nuclear weapons. It also demonstrates about the paths of proliferation and non-proliferation over the last five decades. The author also looks at the increasing proliferation concerns in the Indian neighbourhood, lists out the major proliferation challenges that have emerged after the Cold War. Likewise, it further focuses specially on ballistic missiles and their implications for international security. Likewise it also presents a detailed study of both China and Pakistan’s nuclear weapons and missile programme, examines the traditional Indian position on the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, impact of the nuclear test ban on the post-Cold War environment. It gives enough information about the nuclear weapons, their introduction, how they work and why they are required. It also presents the history of nuclear weapons, telling about the nuclear have countries when and how they conducted it. Jain, Rashmi (Ed.) 2006) presents the record of the transition of Indo-US relations from ‘estranged democracies’ to a ‘strategic partnership’ in the 21st century. It is the inclusive and current study of the political, economic/trade, military/defence and nuclear proportions of Indo-US relations from 1947 to 2006. Jain discusses the overall trends in relations between India and the United States during the Cold War and after. It deals with the implications of the American alliance with Pakistan, the extension of limited arms assistance to India following the India-China war of 1962 and support to the Tashkent and Simla agreements, Nixons tilt towards Pakistan during the Indo-Pak war of 1971, India’s nuclear test of 1947. The study contains a selection of 692 basic documents from official sources, including Congressional hearings, and provides the full texts or extracts from various agreements, joint communiquà ©s and statements and interviews by Government dignitaries. It is the collection of official documents related between the relations of two countries for about fifty years. It works as primary source for the researcher. Beside these books, Journal and other reports have been used while conducting the research. Journals like Foreign affairs, International Affairs, Strategic Affairs, and online edition of The Economist and news sites of BBC, CNN, The New York Times and Indian newspapers such as Hindu, the Times of India has been used. Likewise US congress report, governmental publications and the reports published by the Ministry of Indian External Affairs have been used. Chapter 2 Historical Background ‘South Asia and US Foreign Policy-US meets India’ This chapter briefs about the American Foreign Policy and US involvement in South Asia/India. It is an account of US-Indo relations after 1950s to late 1980s. It is not chronological history of the relation, but it includes major events and trends of the time. South Asia comprises a subsystem of powers with two major nations; India and Pakistan that are actually within South Asia and there others, China, the US and the USSR, that are extra-regional players in the region. South Asia also contains other states with minimal military and economical power; Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Afghanistan. By virtue of their global status, the US and the USSR have been involved in South Asia until 1990s. South Asian Countries are often introduced by political instability, a relative diffusion of powers and slow economic development. These characteristics and weakness prompted the two superpowers to fill the apparent power vacuum and to change it in order to strengthen their respective global and regional policies (Ganguly S. 1999.) South Asia has been usually been regarded as only marginally important to the United States. In the major American security decisions regarding the stability of the international system, maintenance of nuclear balance or the problem of war and peace, South Asia was not considered a determining factor. Some reasons can be traced behind less priority of US to South Asia   First, it was not vital strategically; it did not offer any major resources essential to American industry. Second, the low level of economic and political interaction could not generate a positive image of South Asia in the American mind. In American perceptions, the area remained a preserve of British interests. Thus, US interests in the region were for many years interpreted as philanthropic rather than commercial or strategic (R.Arthur, 2006.) The central dilemma of US policy in South Asia since 1947 has been to deal with the competing claims of the two principal states of this region, India and Pakistan. In a sense, the constant dilemma of Americas South Asia Policy is a result of the regional contest between these two states.Of these two Sub continental states, if India was often a unimportant factor in US perception of the global strategic equation, Pakistan was an insignificant factor unless military aligned with the US. The initial US involvement in South Asia was barely influenced by the regional developments.  What did shape the US role was the shrinking British Empire and the rapid decline of the KMT regime in China. Succeeding US military links to South Asia (especially Pakistan), a subsidiary of its concern in relation to the Soviet Union, accidentally emphasized the level of hostility between India and Pakistan. US involvement not only annoyed India but also brought the Soviet Union and later China into the Subcontinent and made the region an arena of Cold war politics (Ganguly S, 1990.) In many ways, US involvement in India started during World War II, before this both officials and unofficial contacts with India were minimal. While the US maintained a few consular officers in India to look after commercial interests, it relied largely on British Foreign Office communications for information on the Indian political situation. The US really became involved in South Asia after its entry into World War II. British India served at that time as a spring –board for allied military operations against the Japanese in China and Southeast Asia. India’s relations with the Unites States have been described variously as ‘estranged democracies’ and distance powers by Americans. Indian have tended to describe it as ‘distanced democracies’, ‘engaged democracies’ and finally as ‘natural allies’. Another common refrain often articulated from India, describes the United States as the oldest and most powerful democracy and itself as the largest. The expectation from both sides appears to have been that ‘democracy’ will somehow transcend national interests and security imperatives and shape the relationship (B.Dipankar, 2006.) Relations between India and the US have varied widely over the last sixty-five years and adopted a roller-coaster character with many ups and downs and high and lows. In recent years India –US relations has transformed into what both sides claim to be a strategic partnership. Even as both countries move towards that desirable goal, it is useful to recall that divergences in perceptions and policies have varied widely over the years. At the end of the Second World War the Unites States emerged as the undisputed leader of the free world. Its lead in almost every area of consequence remains unchallenged for decades. All its possible peers were largely destroyed by the war and indeed needed Washington’s help to revive themselves. The United States did not just dominate the emerging world order, but had the opportunity to shape it by laying out its figures and establishing the international institutions that would determine its future. Within a few years of the War’s end, the Soviet Union and the Communist bloc emerged as the only group that could conceivably challenge this order, but only in a limited military sense. For India, the immediate concerns were different. It was to emerge from colonialism and external domination as an independent entity. It had first to fully assert its independence, in which it only got success partially as the nation itself was split into India and Pakistan addressing the region to internal conflict for decades. India’s identity and nationalism had to be developed an additional based on its own values and heritage and its territories needed to be consolidated. In addition to these concerns, a modern state had to be created almost from the beginning with all its associated institutions. (C. Raja Mohan 2003) To achieve these immediate goals, India needed a peaceful external environment, uncomplicated by the rivalries of the global power struggle. New Delhi needed to craft a policy that would provide it a meaningful and autonomous role in a future world, in keeping with its own size potential and aspiration. In accordance with these needs it choose a policy of ‘non-alignment’. The term itself was much misunderstood in the world, and particularly in the US. India, perhaps justifiably, never fully explained its position, leading many in the west to ask, ‘non-aligned against what; good and evil?’(R.Bahukutumbi, 1996.) What Nehru opined was a policy that would enable India to take independent positions on international issues without being tied down by alliances and ideological constraints. The central theme was not to get drawn in to military entanglements with major powers. He also hoped this would open up the possibility for India to adopt a position of some leadership of the emerging world. Many practical difficulties emerged, which hindered the implementations of this policy over the years. Over time, other countries also decided to remain ‘non-aligned’. On global issues, non-alignment often meant aligning against the west. Overall this policy prohibited the possibility of a military relationship with any country or grouping. This policy, and differences in world view, became a major barrier to an Indo-US military relationship throughout the Cold War (Ganguly S, 1990.) Indo-US diplomatic relations go back to the presidency of George Washington when Benjamin Joy was appointed to the position of US Consul in Calcutta, the then Indian Capital in 1792. Nothing of note happened until April 1941. When Girija Shakar Bajpai was appointed the first Agent General of India in Washington DC and Thomas Wilson shifted as US Commissioner from Calcutta to New Delhi. At that time President Roosevelt understood that a successful pursuit of the war against the Axis powers required India’s willing support and cooperation. Roosevelt’s support for Indian independence and concern about continuing British rule had left a favourable impression on Indians (Chari PR 1999.) Churchill’s refusal to contemplate a serious change in British imperial policy compelled the Indian National Congress to launch the Quit India movement in 1942. The Congress leaders believed that only an India that was promised freedom after the war could voluntarily join the war against fascism. Instead, the British responded by locking up most senior Congress political leaders. In spite of this, India’s participation in the Second World War was remarkable by any standards. Over two and a half million soldiers, each a volunteer, fought with Allied armies in many of the major threats of the global conflict. This contribution was particularly salient in the Burma front, without which the outcome would have been considerably less certain. In addition to the roughly half-million soldiers from India and the British Commonwealth in this theatre, the Allied forces were joined by troops representing the Nationalist Chinese, many Africans and, by the war’s end, some 250,000 US soldiers (Sigh 2005.) This enormous US troop contribution was easily its largest military-to-military relationship in South Asia. US forces provided the bulk of logistics support, flew substantial numbers of air sorties across uncharted routes in unstable aircraft, and ensured that the Kuomintang forces remained in the war against Japan in China. In addition, there was also the enormous Brooklyn air conditioning plant near Kolkata, the largest in Asia at the time that stored and supplied food to all Allied forces in the East (Banerjee, D 2000.) It might have been expected that this state relations would continue after Indian independence. Instead, the Cold war intervened. India was partitioned and a separate state, Pakistan came into existence in 1947. During the Cold War, the pressure of strategic imperatives often widened the disjuncture between the hope and the reality resulting in hurtful Indo-US relations. The US support to Pakistan on the Jammu and Kashmir dispute in the United Nations in 1948-49, and initiation of military support to Pakistan in 1954, shed a binding shadow on the relationship. The United States wanted to join as many states as possible in its war against communism, often in a formal strategic relationship. India viewed the logic of American alliances as directly breaking its own interests. India was convinced that American military support had encouraged Pakistan to wage war against it in 1965. This happened again during Indo-Pak war in 1971, when the US gave warnings to India and sent the USS Enterprise of its 7th Fleet into the Bay of Bengal. The United States perceived India’s policy of non-alignment as self-righteous and considered its neutrality far from neutral, citing examples of its silence over the Soviet invasion of Hungary and Czechosloskavia in 1968 (Dasgupta 2002.) In mid 1961 India agreed to buy the MiG-21 aircraft from the Soviet Union. This was offered on such munificent terms that neither Great Britain, nor France nor the US could come up with a comparable offer even if they wanted to match it. Thus, began a long and enduring Indo-Soviet arms relationship (Ganguly S, 1990.) The very strong Indian reaction to the evolving Pakistan-US military alliance was perhaps not anticipated in Washington. In any case, by now India’s image in the US had plunged and New Delhi‘s concerns were not a factor in US decision making. Indo-US relations remained frozen in a sate of suspended hostility until 1962. The Chinese aggression on India in Oct-Nov 1962 led to a remarkable turn around in Indo-US relations. The attack from Chinese side surprised and shocked the Indian leaders. A total of two Indian infantry divisions, or less than ten percent of the Indian combat force, faced a thoroughly prepared PLA. The Indian forces were totally unprepared, badly deployed, under-equipped and even without proper clothes. The defeat was total in terms of India’s political standing and its foreign policy. What is notable was the dramatic shift in Indian policy and the liberal military and political support that India received from the US and the West. None of India’s non-aligned partners provided help and few showed any sympathy. Moscow actually temporarily halted the MiG program, siding instead with its socialist friend.  In contrast, the US came through with substantial help. A considerably larger arms package of US $ 373 million was apparently worked out by November 1963 in Washington by Ambassador Chester Bowles and was to have been signed by President Kennedy on 26th of November, 1963. Kennedy said; We should defend India, and therefore

Report on Importance of Communication in Tourism Industry

TOURISM AS COMMUNICATION: THE ROLE OF LANGUAGE IN TOURISM Ms. Neena Gupta V. Research Scholar, Dept. of  Ã‚  English , Univ. Of Jammu, Jammu-180006 Email:  [email  protected] com Phone: 9796491314 Introduction Tourism is one of the most remarkable success stories of modern times. The industry, which only began on a massive scale in the 1960’s, has grown rapidly and steadily for the past 30 years in terms of the income it generates and the number of people who travel abroad. Tourism is the largest service – sector in India. Tourism contributes 6. 23% to the national GDP Tourism generates 8. 8% of the total employment in India . India is to be a Tourism hotspot from 2009 to 2011. (This data is available on Indian Tourism Website). It has proved to be resilient in times of economic crisis and will continue to grow at a rapid pace of almost 4% a year in the 21st  century. According to the WTO (World Tourism Organization) forecasts, more than 700 million people will be travelling internationally by the year 2000, generating more than US $620 billion earning. But what is Tourism? It is important to understand Tourism as a concept as well as a phenomenon .It is not enough to treat Tourism as an industry and keep conducting research to increase profits. This industry is marketing aspects of a country or a region for profit. This implies that one invites visitors to access a part of one’s home or neighbourhood. This cannot be dismissed as mere business. Tourism, therefore, is an extremely complex endeavour. Not only are huge amount of money at stake, it is in addition providing economic incentives for protecting the natural environment, restoring cultural monuments, and preserving nature.In a small but important way, Tourism is contributing to the understanding among peoples of very different backgrounds. But above all, it performs the business of providing a break from stress of routine and fulfilling dreams of leisure travelling. Concept O f Tourism The dictionary  defines tourism as’travelling for pleasure’; and a tourist as ‘one who travels for pleasure. ’  Ã‚  Some definitions attempt to define Tourism in conceptual terms. These provide a theoretical framework in order to indentify the essential characteristics of tourism and what distinguishes it from similar, sometimes related, but different activities.Tourism is the temporary movement of people to destinations outside their normal places of work and residence, the activities undertaken during their stay in these destinations and the facilities created to cater to their needs. Thus Tourism cannot  be treated like any other industry. The  Twentieth century changed the world forever. Technological advances translated into rapid strides in development in all fields—economic, political, social, arts and culture. Travelling, for profit or pleasure, came out of its exclusivity and became more routine.In the feudal world only th e Aristocracy would embark on a ‘Grand Tour’ of the ‘Continent’ or a ‘Voyage’ around the world. A more equal and prosperous population led the world towards this complex phenomenon we call Tourism. In  Ã‚  its simplest form it is travel to new lands; the experience of the exotic in the unfamiliar; an attempt to educate ones’ self  Ã‚  or simply immerse ones’ self in the joys of travel. The space of a hundred years between the twentieth century and the twenty-first has changed tourism from travel to a form of social activity.Rapid strides in knowledge about different, and little known parts of the world and their cultures has revolutionized the concept of tourism. The conceptual framework of human ‘Thought’ has undergone several transformations and the new world is an amalgam of a considerable number of worlds formed out of disparate ‘thoughts’. Right from the onset of the last century the world has be en searched and researched as a set of separate but related structures.The smug and complacent divisions of nation, religion and God; of the earth and its resources; of the space surrounding humans broke down in an acknowledgement that all these are a common heritage of all. Intellectual movements that developed in France in the 1950s and 1960s analysed human culture  semiotically. They are concerned with the analysis of  language,  culture, and  society. The structuralist mode of reasoning has been applied in a diverse range of fields, including  anthropology,  sociology,  psychology,  literary-criticism  and  architecture.Post-structuralism emphasizes the ways in which different aspects of a cultural order, from its most banal material details to its most abstract theoretical exponents, determine one another. These philosophies  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  include many, widely varying disciplines into a synthetic view of knowledge and its relationship to experience, the body , society and economy – a synthesis in which these are a part. Social theorists such as  anthropologist  and  ethnographer  Claude Levi-Strauss,  Marshall Sahlins,  James Boon  and  Pierre Bourdieu  have analysed human culture and society as a system of structures that need to be studied and analysed.The Postmodern philosophy and other related philosophies  such as a structural and scientific approach to all human activities like marriage, cultural values, religious beliefs, social conventions, art and traditions of peoples of the world  is a movement away from the viewpoint of  modernism. More specifically it is a tendency in contemporary culture characterized by the problem of  objective truth  and inherent suspicion towards  global cultural narrative or meta-narrative.It involves the belief that many, if not all, apparent realities are only social constructs, as they are subject to change inherent to time and place. It emphasizes the role of l anguage, power relations, and motivations; in particular it attacks the use of sharp classifications that are absolute and rigid, rather, it holds realities to be plural and relative, and dependent on who the interested parties are and what their interests consist in. With so much thought being generated in a cross-cultural, globalised scene, the concept of tourism has become a many-layered complex of meanings.Tourism has become the subject of much research. In  Global Tourism,  Davidson contends that tourism is not an industry at all. Tourism should not be viewed as a product activity or product but as a social phenomenon, an experience or a process. Recent research on tourism postulates that there are three approaches in defining Tourism—technical, economical and holistic. The first attempts to collect data by identifying tourists; the second treats Tourism as a business and industry. Holistic approach or definition attempts to include the entire essence of the subject. GMS Dann treats Tourism as a sociological process, an art of promotion, with a discourse of its own. The language of Tourism has its own essence. Tourism as Communication The social aspect of tourism enhances its value as a communicative process because  Tourism is an industry with a difference. There is an undeniable exchange between places and people. This exchange is what is meant by communication. Communication happens at many levels (even for one single action), in many different ways, and for most beings, as well as certain machines.Several, if not all, fields of study dedicate a portion of attention to communication widely, some recognizing that animals can communicate with each other as well as human beings, and some are more narrow, only including human beings within the different parameters of human symbolic interaction. Communication  is the activity of conveying  Ã‚  information. Communication  requires a sender, a message, and an intended recipient, although the receiver need not be present or aware of the sender's intent to communicate at the time of communication; thus communication can occur across vast distances in time and space.Communication requires that the communicating parties share an area of communicative commonality. The communication process is complete once the receiver has understood the sender. Thus, communication is a two- way process. The interaction of the tourist with the places he visits and the people he meets is therefore, a form of communication in which both the visitor and the visited form a communication cycle. A considerable amount of weightage is given to the power of impressions on the mind of a person living in the twenty-first century.One of the most important aspects of Tourism is the communication of the impressions created in the minds of tourists. These include non-verbal aspects — sights and sounds communicate a general impression– and the verbal aspect of communication– language p lays an important role in creating impressions. In the field of Tourism, communication, both non-verbal and verbal, can play a vital role in the promotion and profitability of this socio-economic process. THE  Ã‚  LANGUAGE OF TOURISM The third part of the paper deals with the language of tourism and its relevance to tourism in India.The International standard for Travel and Tourism, as recommended by the Ottawa Conference and adopted by UN  Ã‚  Statistical  Ã‚  Committee , proposed  Ã‚  leisure, recreation and holidays; visiting friends and relatives; business and professional; health treatment; religion/ pilgrimage; historical; other (transit etc. ),as tourist activities. The Global Tourist in India seeks  novelty, history,  knowledge, retreat, shopping,  medical expertise, and the endless variety of Indian culture   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Every field has its language—the language of music, of art†¦so does Tourism.The language of Tourism, however, comprises of the non- verbal and verbal aspects of Tourism. Non- Verbal Communication And Tourism Nonverbal communication  describes the process of conveying meaning in the form of non-word messages such as  Ã‚  gesture,  body language  or  posture;  facial expression  and eye contact; object communication such as  clothing,  hairstyles,  architecture,  symbols  and  infographics, as well as through an aggregate of the above. Non-verbal communication is also called silent language and plays a key role in human day to day life from habits to etiquettes to civic sense and moral attitude.Visual communication  is the conveyance of ideas and information through creation of visual representations. Primarily associated with  two dimensional  images, it includes:  signs,  typography,  drawing,  graphic design,  illustration, colours, and electronic resources, video and TV. Canadian media scholar  Harold Innis  had the theory that people use different typ es of media to communicate and which one they choose to use will offer different possibilities for the shape and durability of society.His famous example of this is using  ancient Egypt  and looking at the ways they built themselves out of media with very different properties stone and papyrus. Papyrus is what he called ‘Space Binding'. It made possible the transmission of written orders across space, empires and enables the waging of distant military campaigns and colonial administration. The other is stone and ‘Time Binding', through the construction of temples and the pyramids that  Ã‚  can sustain their authority generation to generation, through this media they can change and shape communication in their society.This is an instance of Historical Tourism as well as visual and non-verbal communication. There are several examples of non-verbal and visual signs in the context of Tourism. These include historical monuments, places of interest, scenery, national par ks, rivers, forests etc. Indian Tourism offers an endless variety in all these. But our historical edifices silently communicate our inability to treasure our  controversial history, and our indifference towards the proud preservation of our cultural heritage, through the defacement of our historical structures by both, the public and the government.Keeping these points in mind one only has to  Ã‚  look around oneself to see what kind of non-verbal language we are using to woo our Tourist—filth on roads, dirty toilets, rape of foreign tourists, over-pricing of souvenirs, cheating, shabby treatment of women and the elderly, throwing water over balconies, or garbage in the handiest corner,†¦ the list of the  Ã‚  non-verbal images India communicates to the world through the tourists is not always what one wishes to project or convey. First we have to improve our non- verbal and visual signals; then our verbal skills.The sensitive advertisements made by` Incredible Ind ia’ are a very good step in this direction. The ‘DevoAtithiBhavo’ campaign is trying to sensitise the Indian public to view their actions and understand how they can appear to the outsiders or to Tourists. Verbal communication  is related to words and does not synonym for verbal or spoken message. Therefore, vocal voices that are not words, such as a mumble, or singing a wordless note, are nonverbal. Sign languages and writing are normally known as verbal communication.Nonverbal communication can be done by any  sensory  channel like with the help of sight, hear, smell, feel or taste. The forms of  verbal communication are sound, words, speaking, and language. Verbal aspects of language are  Visible or Written and Audible or Spoken,  Speech also contains nonverbal elements known as  paralanguage. These include voice quality, emotion and speaking style as well as prosodic features such as  rhythm,  intonation  and  stress. Likewise, written t exts include nonverbal elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words and the use of  emoticons  to convey emotional expressions in pictorial form.Oral communication,  while primarily referring to spoken verbal communication, typically relies on words, visual aids and non-verbal elements to support the conveyance of the meaning. Oral communication includes discussion, speeches, presentations, interpersonal communication and many other varieties. In face to face communication the  body language  and voice tonality plays a significant role and may have a greater impact on the listener than the intended content of the spoken words. Spoken Language contains elements like  audibility  and  comprehensibility.Comprehensibility lies in the correct  modulation,  accent,  intonation,  vocabulary,  grammar. Visible verbal Language  refers to  bill boards,  sign boards,  pamphlets/leaflets,  menus in restaurants,  magazines, books—t ourist guide-books, literary books†¦Here also bad printing, wrong spelling and shoddily translated works convey to Tourists the impression of a badly educated and unaware India. Communication is thus a process by which meaning is assigned and conveyed in an attempt to create shared understanding. This process enables  collaboration  and  cooperation.Language is the most natural link between humans today. The variety of languages in the world makes verbal communication a challenge. The development of English, Spanish and Chinese as the language of a major segment of the global population is a healthy development. A common, communicative language is required to enhance tourism Verbal Language and Indian Culture. There are many Indias within India. Linguistic identity is an integral part of Indian-ness and culture. Indian history, literature, science, medicine, religion and spiritual knowledge is a priceless heritage preserved in hundreds of languages.Language  in India is a many-splendoured thing  Ã¢â‚¬â€œÃ‚  there are several classes of  Indian languages– classical, regional,  dialect,  Ã‚  official,national. Since communication requires adeptness in language—both, national and international, Indian Tourism must pay attention to the socio-cultural-lingual aspect of India. Just as one pays attention to the non- verbal communication that Indians may convey to Tourists, it is important to ensure that the verbal communication of India and its public is impressive and Tourist-friendly.The language of any country or region is an indicator of the nature and complexity of its culture. The official languages of the country as well as of the states must be communicated to the Tourist in a befitting manner. This means that English and Hindi, and regional languages must be promoted and encouraged. This sounds simple but is a very tricky issue. With the emphasis on science and professional  subjects, language studies has been neglectedâ €”students and universities, both have let  Ã‚  the standard of language slide.Consequently, English, while preferred by the majority of young Indians, remains a difficult language to master, and native languages suffer due to indifference and the contempt of the familiar. Moreover, these languages do not seem to offer any avenues of advancement, as there are not many profitable careers in regional or rural languages. The Tourism sector can benefit enormously, at the same time it can revive  Ã‚  interest  Ã‚  in learning languages among the youth. It can, and should work towards raising the standard of language in the Tourism sector.It can do this in two major ways. First, it must engage persons with good language ability— in English, Hindi along with one or more regional languages. Second, it must invest time and money in Training. Language Training  in India is multi faceted—and involves the consideration of two vital issues–Indian Languages and In dian Heritage. The language Users—employees at  information desks, reception centers,  booking centres should have a high level of communication skills.The personnel working in the Tourist areas must be well-versed in the historical, geographical. cultural and socio-economic significance of the area they operate from. Tourist Guides  are a very visible face of tourism. A great presenter must capture the attention of the audience and connect with them. The audience or tourists should have a positive impact with his/her body language and tone of voice. Visual aid can help to facilitate effective communication and is almost always used in presentations for an audience.Here, the use of English, Hindi and of the local language is an important factor in making the experience a good means of communication between India and the Tourist. A widely cited and widely misinterpreted figure used to emphasize the importance of delivery states that â€Å"communication comprise 55% body language, 38% tone of voice, 7% content of words†, the so-called â€Å"7%-38%-55% rule†. This is not, however, what the cited research shows – rather, when conveying  emotion,  if body language, tone of voice, and words  disagree,  then body language and tone of voice will be believed more than words.A Guide who does not know the history and significance of the tourist item he is presenting would spoil the pleasure of the experience for the Tourist. If he knows and cannot communicate either due to poor communication skills or incomprehensible accent the whole exercise is rendered futile. Since the Guide represents, both, the tourism sector and the country and society of the visited, the poor performance of the Guide communicates a certain impression detrimental to the image of the country or state.At this point, an illustration of the use of Urdu in the Tourism of Jammu and Kashmir may add weight to the argument. If the personnel of the Tourist Departmen t have proficiency in English, Hindi, and Dogri, Urdu or Ladakhi, the temples of Jammu, the monuments of the Mughals and the eternal mountains of Ladakh would come alive for any Tourist and remind him forever of the richness, big-heartedness and timelessness of India. On the other hand, ignorant, and bad speakers may create the impression that a once great people have become an apology of a nation.Recommendations for making tourism more successful:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Make non-verbal signs of communication strong, correct and positive in their impact. People associated with the tourism industry must understand the vital role of language. Language is one of the most important tools in their work -kit   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The attitude of the industry towards the language-ability of their policy-makers, executives and field-level workers should not be indifferent   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Training in Languages must be stringent   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã ‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Special hubs must be created for teaching language skill ConclusionLanguage is a vital indicator of the level of any civilization. The level of the proficiency in language highlights culture of the people. Skill in the local, regional, national and an international language is the Brahamastra that will provide the cutting edge to successful Tourism SELECT  Ã‚  BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Burkart, AJ and Medlik, S. Tourism: Past, Present and Future. London: Heinemann, 1974. 2. Conrady, Roland and Buck, Martin, ed. Trends and Issues in Global Tourism . Berlin: Springer, c2008. 3. Dann, Graham M. S. Global Tourism. New York: CABI Pub. , 2008. 4.Dann, Graham M. S. The Language of Tourist: A Sociolinguistic Perspective. Wallingford, Oxon, UK : CABI Pub. , 1996 5. Dann, Graham M. S. Tourist as a Metaphor of the Social World. New York: CABI Pub. , 2002 6. Leed, J. Eric. The Mind of the Traveler: From Gilgamesh to Global Tourism. NY: Basic Books, 1991. 7 . Meethan, Kevin. Tourism in Global Society: Place, Culture, Consumption. New York: Palgrave, 2001 8. Roudinesco, Elisabeth. Philosophy in Turbulent Times: Canguilhem, Sartre, Foucault, Althusser, Deleuze, Derrida. New York: Columbia University Press, 2008

Ways to Serve Others This Christmas

Christmas is the season of giving; since our schedules offer so much flexibility, homeschooling families often have the availability to give back to their community during the holiday season. If you and your family have been considering service opportunities, try any of these 11 ways to serve others this Christmas. Serve Meals at a Soup Kitchen Call your local soup kitchen or homeless shelter to schedule a time to go serve meals. You might also inquire if they are low on any specific supply needs. This time of year many organizations host food drives, so their pantry may be full, but there may be other items that need to be restocked such as bandages, blankets, or personal hygiene items. Sing Carols at a Nursing Home Gather your family and a few friends to go sing Christmas carols at a nursing home. Ask if it’s okay to bring baked goods or wrapped candy to share with the residents. Spend some time before you go making homemade Christmas homemade cards to deliver or buy a box of assorted cards to share. Sometimes nursing homes are overwhelmed with groups that want to visit during the holiday season, so you may want to see if there are other ways that you can help or better times to visit. Adopt Someone Choose a child, grandparent, single mom, or family who is struggling this year and purchase gifts or groceries or deliver a meal. If you don’t know someone personally, you can ask local agencies and organizations that work with needy families. Pay Someone’s Utility Bill Inquire at the utility company to see if you can pay the electric, gas, or water bill for someone who is struggling. Due to privacy factors, you may not be able to pay a specific bill, but there is often a fund to which you can donate. You might also check with the Department of Family and Children’s Services. Bake a Meal or Treats for Someone Leave a little snack bag in the mailbox with a note for your mail carrier, or put a basket of snacks, soft drinks, and bottled water on the porch with a note inviting delivery people to help themselves. That’s sure to be a greatly appreciated gesture during the busy holiday season You can also call your local hospital and see if you could deliver a meal or snacks and drinks to the ICU waiting room or hospitality room for the families of patients. Leave a Generous Tip for Your Server at Restaurants We sometimes hear of people leaving a tip of $100 or even $1000 or more. That’s fantastic if you can afford to do that, but just tipping above the traditional 15-20% can be greatly appreciated during the holiday season.   Donate to the Bell Ringers The men and women ringing bells in front of stores are often recipients of the services offered by the organization for whom they’re collecting. The donations are typically used to operate homeless shelters and after-school and substance abuse programs and to provide meals and toys to needy families at Christmas. Help the Homeless Consider making bags to give out to homeless people. Fill a gallon-size storage bag with items such as gloves, a beanie, small juice boxes or water bottles, non-perishable ready-to-eat food items, lip balm, facial tissues, restaurant gifts cards, or prepaid phone cards. You might also consider giving blankets or a sleeping bag. Perhaps an even better way to help the homeless community is to  contact an organization that works directly with the homeless  and find out what they need. Often, these organizations can stretch monetary donations farther by purchasing in bulk or working with complementary organizations. Do Housework or Yard Work for Someone Rake leaves, shovel snow, clean house, or do laundry for someone who could use the extra help. You might consider a sick or elderly neighbor or a new or single parent. Obviously, you’ll have to make arrangements to do housework, but yard work can be done as a complete surprise. Take a Hot Beverage to People Working in the Cold Police officers directing traffic, mail carriers, bell ringers, or anyone else working out in the cold this Christmas season will appreciate a cup of hot cocoa, coffee, tea, or cider. Even if they don’t drink it, they’ll enjoy using it as a hand warmer for a little while.   Pay for Someone’s Meal at a Restaurant Paying for someone’s meal in a restaurant or the car behind you in the drive-thru is a fun random act of kindness any of time of year, but it’s often especially appreciated at Christmas when money is  tight for  many families.   Whether youre investing your time, your financial resources, or both to serve others this holiday season, youll likely find that its you and your family who are blessed by serving others.

The Effects Of Sleep Deprivation On Children - 1182 Words

For those who work long shifts; For those who try to compensate for their lack of sleep during the weekends; For those who simply like to stay up all night: lack of sleep could cause irreparable brain damage. Deprivation of long-term sleep hours could weaken brain energy even after days of sleep recovery. And it could be a sign of permanent brain damage. The consequences of not sleeping or not sleeping enough are serious, not only for the person who is not resting enough, but also for the people around them. Although most people do not pay much attention to lack of sleep, there are potentially deadly consequences. What makes sleep deprivation so harmful is that it not only affects one aspect of your health, it affects many, if not all. Among them are serious risks to your physical and mental well-being. It is important to understand that sleeping less than six hours each night can cause cognitive impairment. Lack of sleep has also been linked to health issues such as obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, Alzheimer s disease, and cancer. Depression and anxiety disorders are also negatively affected by lack of sleep. (Mercola) Reaction time decreases: When you do not sleep well, you will not react as quickly as you normally would, so it is very dangerous to handle or do other potentially dangerous activities, such as using power tools or driving since it is almost as dangerous as drinking and driving. Your cognition suffers, both short-term and long-term: Sleeping onlyShow MoreRelatedSleep Deprivation And Its Effects On Children Essay1511 Words   |  7 Pagesthe Sleepless in America (American Academy of Sleep Medicine, 2014), the documentary which co-produced by the National Geographic Channel, almost forty percent of Americans get less than five hours of sleep per night. Sleep deprivation often results in depression-like symptoms. Thus we heard suggestions that we should have at least eight hours of sleep a night. In fact, the duration of sleep affected by multiple factors, such as human has different sleep needs at the different age, and according toRead MoreThe Effects Of Sleep Deprivation On Children1996 Words   |  8 Pagesleast 9 hours of sleep each night, but nearly 10 out of every 15 students get under 8 hours of sleep and 6 out of every 15 get under 6 hours of sleep. Students and teachers that get enough sleep wake up feeling confident and ready to start their day off right with good work ethic. Not getting enough sleep will cause several different physical, mental, and emotional health issues for a teen that is forced to wake up early in order to get ready for their school day. Sleep deprivation is a huge issueRead MoreThe Effects Of Sleep Deprivation On Children974 Words   |  4 PagesIntroduction 1. My opening/attention getting material is as follows: Sleep deprivation was a factor in some of the biggest disasters for example the 1979 nuclear accident at Three Mile Island, the massive Exxon oil spill, and the 1986 nuclear meltdown at Chernobyl. Sleep deprivation is affecting many Americans today especially college students. â€Å"A study in the Journal of Adolescent Health found that only 30 percent of students sleep at least eight hours a night, which is the average requirement forRead MoreSleep Deprivation And Its Effects On Children Essay1249 Words   |  5 PagesRichard Simmons once said, â€Å"There is no such thing as sleep deprivation, there is only caffeine deficiency.† College students everywhere have claimed this as their motto. From art majors who stay up late practicing charcoal and shading, to nursing majors who are stressing all night studying for their exams and practicums, to engineering majors who think a good night’s sleep is three or four h ours, sleep has rarely been prioritised in college. Psychology Professors at the University of Hong Kong,Read MoreThe Effects Of Sleep Deprivation On Children1427 Words   |  6 Pagesor substances and people suffering from sleep deprivation. Effects of fatigue are thought to play a part in between 16% and 60% of road accidents and in the United states were estimated to cost in vicinity of $50 billion. This essay will argue just how dangerous driving under the influence of sleep deprivation really is. This essays argument will be supported by two major papers the first one is â€Å"Impairment of Driving Performance Caused by Sleep Deprivation or Alcohol: A Comparative Study† which wasRead MoreThe Effects Of Sleep Deprivation On Children1994 Words   |  8 PagesThe Effect Of Sleep Deprivation Sleep deprivation has been an increasing problem with people of all age, specifically young adults. Many young adults in today’s society fights to stay awake and consume in cups of coffee. Sleep deprivation has not only affected many young adults life-style, but also their health. Some research shows that sleep deprivation â€Å"affect ones’ cognitive performance† (Grundgeiger et al). People with sleep deprivation performance are lower with the more resource-demanding prospectiveRead MoreThe Effects Of Lack Of Sleep Deprivation On Children1315 Words   |  6 Pages Do teens know how many problems can come with the lack of sleep? with sleep deprivation comes many long term effects on people s mental and physical health.lacking sleep is a cause of depression, obesity ,and makes it hard to function in school. School shouldn’t start as early as it does.because, it s unhealthy and lowers academic scores. Lack of sleep puts teens at risk for mental and physical issues.Less amounts of sleep put teens at a higher risk for depression,obesity,and motor-Read MoreThe Effects Of Sleep Deprivation On Children s Routine Performance And Interaction Skills979 Words   |  4 PagesSleep deprivation has likely harmed most people’s routine performance and interaction skills at least enough to alarm them of its profound impairment to their mental and physical state. Everyone knows the feeling of being short-tempered and irritable because they didn’t get enough sleep the night before, but many also know the feeling of delirium and decreased cognitive abilities associated with many frightening consequences such as surmountable drops in their ability to communicate well with othersRead MoreSleep Deprivation : Symptoms And Treatments1417 Words   |  6 Pagesexperiencing sleep deprivation or not having enough sleep will cause one to be frustrated. It is not a decent experience to have. Whenever we have sleep deprivation or have little sleep, we become less productive and not concentrated the next day. As these things happen, bosses will scold us or we will fail our tasks. While we fail, or get scolded, the mood at that moment is always annoying and unsatisfying. People who encounter with lack of sleep will know that having not enough sleep is the mainRead MoreSleep Deprivation Essay684 Words   |  3 PagesSleep Deprivation It’s seven thirty in the morning, the time that most American high schools begin class. Instead of being chipper and ready to learn, most teenagers, at this time of the morning, can barely remain awake. These puffy eyed pupils are by no means ready to learn. Sixty percent children under 18 reported being sleepy during the day, with another fifteen percent reporting that they had fallen asleep during the school day within the past year (National Sleep Foundation, Dozing)